තුර්කි භාෂාව

Turkish (Türkçe , Türk dili), also referred to as Turkey Turkish (Türkiye Türkçesi), is the most widely spoken of the , with around 80 to 90 million speakers. It is the national language of Turkey and . Significant smaller groups of Turkish speakers also exist in , , , , Bulgaria, North Macedonia,Greece, the , and other parts of Europe and Central Asia. Cyprus has requested that the European Union add Turkish as an official language, even though Turkey is not a member state. Turkish is the 13th most spoken language in the world.

තුර්කි
Türkçe/තුර්ක්ජේ (නාම පදය, ක්‍රියා විශේෂන පදය) Türk dili/තුර්ක් දිලි (නාම පදය)
තුර්කි අක්ෂර වලින් ලිඛිතTürkçe
උච්චාරණය	Türkçe:  ( අසන්න) Türk dili: Turkish pronunciation:
ස්වදේශික වන්නේ	තුර්කිය (official), උතුරු සයිප්‍රසය (official), සයිප්‍රස් (official), , ඉරාකය, සිරියාව, ලෙබනනය, ග්‍රීසිය, බල්ගේරියාව, රොමේනියාව, , ,
කලාපය	ඇනටෝලියාව, , සයිප්‍රස්, , ,
ජන වර්ගය
ස්වදේශික හසුරුවන්නන්	මිලියන 80ට අධික (2021ට අනුව) (date missing) මිලියන 88 ( + )
භාෂා පවුල	Western Oghuz තුර්කි
ආදි ස්වරූප
සම්මත ස්වරූප	Istanbul Turkish
උපභාෂා
	()
නිල තත්ත්වය
නිල භාෂාව වන ජාතිය	Cyprus Turkey
හඳුනාගත් සුළුතර භාෂාවක් වන ජාතිය	Greece Iraq Kosovo North Macedonia Romania
භාෂා කේත
	tr
	tur
	tur
ග්ලොටෝලොග්	nucl1301
	part of
Countries where Turkish is an official language   Countries where it is recognised as a minority language   Countries where it is recognised as a minority language and co-official in at least one municipality
මෙම ලිපියෙහි ෆෝනටික සංකේත ඇතුළත් වේ. නිසි (පරිවර්තන සහාය) නොමැති විට, අක්ෂර වෙනුවට ඔබට දර්ශනය විය හැක. IPA සංකේත පිළිබඳ හැඳින්වීම් මාර්ගෝපදේශනයක් සඳහා, බලන්න.

A Turkish speaker from Kosovo.

To the west, the influence of —the variety of the Turkish language that was used as the administrative and literary language of the —spread as the Ottoman Empire expanded. In 1928, as one of in the early years of the Republic of Turkey, the was replaced with a .

The distinctive characteristics of the Turkish language are and extensive . The basic word order of Turkish is . Turkish has no or . The language makes usage of and has a strong which distinguishes varying levels of politeness, , age, courtesy or familiarity toward the addressee. The plural second-person pronoun and verb forms are used referring to a single person out of respect.

Classification

ප්‍රධාන ලිපිය:

Turkish is a member of the group of the family. Other members include , spoken in and north-west Iran, of , of south Iran and the of .

Classification of the languages is complicated. The migrations of the peoples and their consequent intermingling with one another and with peoples who spoke non- languages, have created a linguistic situation of vast complexity.

There is ongoing debate about whether the family is itself a branch of a larger family, including Japanese, Korean, and . The nineteenth-century theory, which grouped Turkish with , Hungarian and languages, is controversial. The theory was based mostly on the fact these languages share three features: , and lack of grammatical gender.

History

The 10th-century or "Book of Divination"

The earliest known are the three monumental found in modern Mongolia. Erected in honour of the prince and his brother Emperor , these date back to the (dated 682–744 CE). After the discovery and excavation of these monuments and associated stone slabs by Russian archaeologists in the wider area surrounding the between 1889 and 1893, it became established that the language on the inscriptions was the written using the , which has also been referred to as "Turkic runes" or "runiform" due to a superficial similarity to the .

With the during Early Middle Ages (c. 6th–11th centuries), peoples speaking Turkic languages spread across Central Asia, covering a vast geographical region stretching from all the way to Europe and the Mediterranean. The of the , in particular, brought their language, —the direct ancestor of today's Turkish language—into during the 11th century. Also during the 11th century, an early linguist of the Turkic languages, from the , published the first comprehensive Turkic language dictionary and map of the geographical distribution of Turkic speakers in the Compendium of the Turkic Dialects (Ottoman Turkish: Divânü Lügati't-Türk).

Ottoman Turkish

The 15th century

ප්‍රධාන ලිපිය:

Following the adoption of Islam c. 950 by the and the , who are both regarded as the ethnic and cultural ancestors of the , the administrative language of these states acquired a large collection of loanwords from Arabic and . during the Ottoman period, particularly , was heavily influenced by Persian, including the adoption of poetic meters and a great quantity of imported words. The literary and official language during the period (c. 1299–1922) is termed , which was a mixture of Turkish, Persian, and Arabic that differed considerably and was largely unintelligible to the period's everyday Turkish. The everyday Turkish, known as kaba Türkçe or "rough Turkish", spoken by the less-educated lower and also rural members of society, contained a higher percentage of native vocabulary and served as basis for the modern Turkish language.

Language reform and modern Turkish

After the foundation of the modern state of Turkey and the script reform, the (TDK) was established in 1932 under the patronage of , with the aim of conducting research on Turkish. One of the tasks of the newly established association was to initiate a to replace of Arabic and Persian origin with Turkish equivalents. By banning the usage of imported words in the press,^[] the association succeeded in removing several hundred foreign words from the language. While most of the words introduced to the language by the TDK were newly derived from Turkic roots, it also opted for reviving Old Turkish words which had not been used for centuries. In 1935, the TDK published a bilingual /Pure Turkish dictionary that documents the results of the language reform.

Owing to this sudden change in the language, older and younger people in Turkey started to differ in their vocabularies. While the generations born before the 1940s tend to use the older terms of Arabic or Persian origin, the younger generations favor new expressions. It is considered particularly ironic that Atatürk himself, in to the new in 1927, used a style of Ottoman which sounded so alien to later listeners that it had to be "translated" three times into modern Turkish: first in 1963, again in 1986, and most recently in 1995.

The past few decades have seen the continuing work of the TDK to coin new Turkish words to express new concepts and technologies as they enter the language, mostly from English. Many of these new words, particularly information technology terms, have received widespread acceptance. However, the TDK is occasionally criticized for coining words which sound contrived and artificial. Some earlier changes—such as bölem to replace fırka, "political party"—also failed to meet with popular approval (fırka has been replaced by the French loanword parti). Some words restored from Old Turkic have taken on specialized meanings; for example betik (originally meaning "book") is now used to mean "" in computer science.

Some examples of modern Turkish words and the old loanwords are:

Ottoman Turkish	Modern Turkish	English translation	Comments
müselles	üçgen	triangle	Compound of the noun üç ("three") and the suffix -gen
tayyare	uçak	aeroplane	Derived from the verb uçmak ("to fly"). The word was first proposed to mean "airport".
nispet	oran	ratio	The old word is still used in the language today together with the new one. The modern word is from the Old Turkic verb or- ("to cut").
şimal	kuzey	north	Derived from the Old Turkic noun kuz ("cold and dark place", "shadow"). The word is restored from usage.
teşrinievvel	ekim	October	The noun ekim means "sowing", referring to the planting of cereal seeds in autumn, which is widespread in Turkey

Geographic distribution

An advertisement by the branch in written in the German and Turkish languages.

Turkish is natively spoken by the in Turkey and by the in some 30 other countries. Turkish language is mutually intelligible with and other Turkic languages. In particular, Turkish-speaking minorities exist in countries that formerly (in whole or part) belonged to the , such as Iraq, Bulgaria, Cyprus, Greece (primarily in ), the Republic of North Macedonia, Romania, and Serbia. More than two million Turkish speakers live in Germany; and there are significant Turkish-speaking communities in the United States, France, the Netherlands, Austria, Belgium, Switzerland, and the United Kingdom. Due to the of Turkish immigrants in host countries, not all ethnic members of the diaspora speak the language with native fluency.

In 2005 93% of the population of Turkey were native speakers of Turkish, about 67 million at the time, with making up most of the remainder.

, official in Azerbaijan, is with Turkish and speakers of both languages can understand them without noticeable difficulty, especially when discussion comes on ordinary, daily language. Turkey has very good relations with Azerbaijan, with a multitude of Turkish companies and authorities investing there, while the influence of Turkey in the country is very high. The rising presence of this very similar language in Azerbaijan and the fact that many children use Turkish words instead of Azerbaijani words due to satellite TV has caused concern that the dinstictive features of the language will be eroded. Many bookstores sell books in Turkish language along Azerbaijani language ones, with Agalar Mahmadov, a leading intellectual, voicing his concern that Turkish language has "already started to take over the national and natural dialects of Azerbaijan". However, the presence of Turkish as foreign language is not as high as Russian. In Uzbekistan, the second most populated Turkic country, a new TV channel Foreign Languages TV was established in 2022. This channel has been broadcasting Turkish lessons alongside with English, French, German and Russian lessons.

Official status

Left: Bilingual sign, Turkish (top) and Arabic (bottom), at a Turkmen village in , Iraq.
Right: Road signs in , Kosovo. Official languages are: (top), (middle) and Turkish (bottom).

Turkish is the official language of Turkey and is one of the official languages of Cyprus. Turkish has official status in 38 municipalities in Kosovo, including Mamusha,, two in the Republic of North Macedonia and in in Iraq.

In Turkey, the regulatory body for Turkish is the (Türk Dil Kurumu or TDK), which was founded in 1932 under the name Türk Dili Tetkik Cemiyeti ("Society for Research on the Turkish Language"). The Turkish Language Association was influenced by the ideology of : indeed one of its primary tasks was the replacement of loanwords and of foreign grammatical constructions with equivalents of Turkish origin. These changes, together with the adoption of the new in 1928, shaped the modern Turkish language spoken today. The TDK became an independent body in 1951, with the lifting of the requirement that it should be presided over by the Minister of Education. This status continued until August 1983, when it was again made into a governmental body in the , following the military .

Dialects

ප්‍රධාන ලිපිය:

Modern standard Turkish is based on the dialect of . This Istanbul Turkish (İstanbul Türkçesi) constitutes the model of written and spoken Turkish, as recommended by , and others.

Dialectal variation persists, in spite of the of the standard used in mass media and in the since the 1930s. Academic researchers from Turkey often refer to Turkish dialects as ağız or şive, leading to an ambiguity with the linguistic concept of , which is also covered with these words. Several universities, as well as a dedicated work-group of the Turkish Language Association, carry out investigating Turkish dialects. 2002 වන විට^[update] work continued on the compilation and publication of their research as a comprehensive dialect- of the Turkish language.

Map of the main subgroups of across Southeast Europe and the Middle East.

Some from speak , which includes the distinct dialects of , Dinler, and Adakale, which show the influence of the theoretized . Kıbrıs Türkçesi is the name for and is spoken by the . Edirne is the dialect of . Ege is spoken in the region, with its usage extending to . The nomadic of the of Turkey also have their own dialect of Turkish. This group is not to be confused with the Yuruk nomads of Macedonia, Greece, and European Turkey, who speak .

The who live in Kazakhstan, Azerbaijan and Russia as well as in several Central Asian countries, also speak an Eastern Anatolian dialect of Turkish, originating in the areas of Kars, Ardahan, and Artvin and sharing similarities with , the language of Azerbaijan.

The speaks Orta Anadolu. Karadeniz, spoken in the Eastern and represented primarily by the dialect, exhibits influence from Greek in and ; it is also known as Laz dialect (not to be confused with the ). Kastamonu is spoken in and its surrounding areas. is spoken in Greece, where it is called Kαραμανλήδικα. It is the literary standard for the .

Phonology

ප්‍රධාන ලිපිය:

Consonants

Consonant phonemes of Standard Turkish

			/
					()
					()
			()			()

At least one source claims Turkish consonants are laryngeally-specified three-way fortis-lenis (aspirated/neutral/voiced) like Armenian.

The phoneme that is usually referred to as yumuşak g ("soft g"), written ⟨ğ⟩ in Turkish , represents a vowel sequence or a rather weak bilabial approximant between rounded vowels, a weak palatal approximant between unrounded front vowels, and a vowel sequence elsewhere. It never occurs at the beginning of a word or a syllable, but always follows a vowel. When word-final or preceding another consonant, it lengthens the preceding vowel.

In native Turkic words, the sounds [c], [ɟ], and [l] are in with [k], [ɡ], and [ɫ]; the former set occurs adjacent to front vowels and the latter adjacent to back vowels. The distribution of these is often unpredictable, however, in foreign borrowings and proper nouns. In such words, [c], [ɟ], and [l] often occur with back vowels: some examples are given below.

Consonant devoicing

ප්‍රධාන ලිපිය:

Turkish orthography reflects , a form of whereby a voiced obstruent, such as /b d dʒ ɡ/, is devoiced to [p t tʃ k] at the end of a word or before a consonant, but retains its voicing before a vowel. In loan words, the voiced equivalent of /k/ is /g/; in native words, it is /ğ/.

Obstruent devoicing in nouns

Underlying consonant	Devoiced form	Underlying morpheme	Dictionary form	Dative case / 1sg present	Meaning
b	p	*kitab	kitap	kitaba	book (loan)
c	ç	*uc	uç	uca	tip
d	t	*bud	but	buda	thigh
g	k	*reng	renk	renge	color (loan)
ğ	k	*ekmeğ	ekmek	ekmeğe	bread

This is analogous to languages such as and , but in the case of Turkish, the spelling is usually made to match the sound. However, in a few cases, such as ad /at/ 'name' (dative ada), the underlying form is retained in the spelling (cf. at /at/ 'horse', dative ata). Other exceptions are od 'fire' vs. ot 'herb', sac 'sheet metal', saç 'hair'. Most loanwords, such as kitap above, are spelled as pronounced, but a few such as hac 'hajj', şad 'happy', and yad 'strange' or 'stranger' also show their underlying forms.^[]

Native nouns of two or more syllables that end in /k/ in dictionary form are nearly all //ğ// in underlying form. However, most verbs and monosyllabic nouns are underlyingly //k//.

Vowels

Vowels of Turkish. From Zimmer & Orgun (1999:155)

The vowels of the Turkish language are, in their alphabetical order, ⟨a⟩, ⟨e⟩, ⟨ı⟩, ⟨i⟩, ⟨o⟩, ⟨ö⟩, ⟨u⟩, ⟨ü⟩. The Turkish vowel system can be considered as being three-dimensional, where vowels are characterised by how and where they are articulated focusing on three key features: , and . Vowels are classified [±back], [±round] and [±high].

The only in the language are found in and may be categorised as falling diphthongs usually analyzed as a sequence of /j/ and a vowel.

Vowel harmony

Turkish Vowel Harmony	Front Vowels				Back Vowels
	Unrounded		Rounded		Unrounded		Rounded
Vowel	e /e/	i /i/	ü /y/	ö /ø/	a /a/	ı /ɯ/	u /u/	o /o/
Twofold (Backness)	e				a
Fourfold (Backness + Rounding)	i		ü		ı		u

Road sign at the European end of the in . (Photo taken during the 28th in 2006)

The principle of vowel harmony, which permeates Turkish word-formation and suffixation, is due to the natural human tendency towards economy of muscular effort. This principle is expressed in Turkish through three rules:

1. If the first vowel of a word is a back vowel, any subsequent vowel is also a back vowel; if the first is a front vowel, any subsequent vowel is also a front vowel.
2. If the first vowel is unrounded, so too are subsequent vowels.
3. If the first vowel is rounded, subsequent vowels are either rounded and close or unrounded and open.

The second and third rules minimize muscular effort during speech. More specifically, they are related to the phenomenon of labial assimilation: if the lips are rounded (a process that requires muscular effort) for the first vowel they may stay rounded for subsequent vowels. If they are unrounded for the first vowel, the speaker does not make the additional muscular effort to round them subsequently.

Grammatical have "a chameleon-like quality", and obey one of the following patterns of vowel harmony:

• twofold (-e/-a): the suffix, for example, is -de after front vowels and -da after back vowels. The notation -de² is a convenient shorthand for this pattern.
• fourfold (-i/-ı/-ü/-u): the suffix, for example, is -in or -ın after unrounded vowels (front or back respectively); and -ün or -un after the corresponding rounded vowels. In this case, the shorthand notation -in⁴ is used.

Practically, the twofold pattern (also referred to as the e-type vowel harmony) means that in the environment where the vowel in the word stem is formed in the front of the mouth, the suffix will take the e-form, while if it is formed in the back it will take the a-form. The fourfold pattern (also called the i-type) accounts for rounding as well as for front/back. The following examples, based on the -dir⁴ ("[it] is"), illustrate the principles of i-type vowel harmony in practice: Türkiye'dir ("it is Turkey"),kapıdır ("it is the door"), but gündür ("it is the day"), paltodur ("it is the coat").

Exceptions to vowel harmony

These are four word-classes that are exceptions to the rules of vowel harmony:

1. Native, non-compound words, e.g. dahi "also," ela "light brown," elma "apple," hangi "which," hani "where," haydi "come on," inanmak "to believe," kardeş "brother," şişman "fat," anne "mother"
2. Native compound words, e.g. bugün "today," dedikodu "gossip"
3. Foreign words, e.g. ferman (< Farsi فرماندهی "command"), mikrop (< French microbe "microbe"), piskopos (< Greek επίσκοπος "bishop")
4. Invariable suffixes: –daş (denoting common attachment to the concept expressed by the noun), –yor (denoting the present tense in the third person), –ane (turning adjectives or nouns into adverbs), –ken (meaning "while being"), –leyin (meaning "in/at/during"), –imtrak (weakening an adjective of color or taste in a way similar to the English suffix –ish as in blueish), –ki (making a pronoun or adjective out of an adverb or a noun in the locative case), –gil (meaning "the house or family of"), –gen (referring to the name of plane figures)

Invariable suffix	Turkish example	Meaning in English	Remarks
–daş	meslektaş	"colleague"	From meslek "profession."
–yor	geliyor	"he/she/it is coming"	From gel– "to come."
–ane	şahane	"regal"	From şah, "king."
–ken	uyurken	"while sleeping"	From uyu–, "to sleep."
–leyin	sabahleyin	"in the morning"	From sabah, "morning."
–imtrak	ekşimtrak	"sourish"	From ekşi, "sour."
–ki	ormandaki	"(that) in the forest"	From orman, "forest."
–gil	annemgiller	"my mother's family"	From annem, "my mother."
–gen	altıgen	"hexagon"	From altı, "six."

The road sign in the photograph above illustrates several of these features:

• a native compound which does not obey vowel harmony: Orta+köy ("middle village"—a place name)
• a loanword also violating vowel harmony: viyadük (< French viaduc "viaduct")
• the possessive suffix -i⁴ harmonizing with the final vowel (and softening the k by consonant ): viyadüğü^[]

The rules of vowel harmony may vary by regional dialect. The dialect of Turkish spoken in the region of northeastern Turkey follows the reduced vowel harmony of , with the additional complication of two missing vowels (ü and ı), thus there is no . It's likely that elün meant "your hand" in Old Anatolian. While the 2nd person singular possessive would vary between back and front vowel, -ün or -un, as in elün for "your hand" and kitabun for "your book", the lack of ü vowel in the Trabzon dialect means -un would be used in both of these cases — elun and kitabun.

Word-accent

With the exceptions stated below, Turkish words are oxytone (accented on the last syllable).

Exceptions to word-accent rules

1. Place-names are not oxytone:Anádolu (Anatolia), İstánbul. Most place names are accented on their first syllable as in Páris and Zónguldak. This holds true when place names are spelled the same way as common nouns, which are oxytone: mısír (maize), Mísır (Egypt), sirkecı̇́ (vinegar-seller), Sı̇́rkeci (district in Istanbul), bebék (doll, baby), Bébek (district in Istanbul), ordú (army), Órdu (a Turkish city on the Black Sea).
2. Foreign nouns usually retain their original accentuation, e.g., lokánta (< Italian locanda "restaurant"), ólta (< Greek βόλτα "fishing line"), gazéte (< Italian gazzetta "newspaper")
3. Some words about family members and living creatures have irregular accentuation: ánne (mother), ábla (older sister), görúmce (husband's sister), yénge (brother's wife), hála (paternal aunt), téyze (maternal aunt), ámca (paternal uncle), çekı̇́rge (grasshopper), karínca (ant), kokárca (skunk)
4. Adverbs are usually accented on the first syllable, e.g., şı̇́mdi (now), sónra (after), ánsızın (suddenly), gérçekten (really), (but gerçektén (from reality)), kíşın (during winter)
5. Compound words are accented on the end of the first element, e.g., çíplak (naked), çırílçıplak (stark naked), bakán (minister), báşbakan (prime minister)
6. Diminutives constructed by suffix –cik are accented on the first syllable, e.g., úfacık (very tiny), évcik (small house)
7. Words with enclitic suffixes, –le (meaning "with"), –ken (meaning "while"), –ce (creating an adverb), –leyin (meaning "in" or "during"), –me (negating the verbal stem), –yor (denoting the present tense)

Enclictic suffix	Turkish example	Meaning in English
–le	memnuniyétle	with pleasure
–ken	yazárken	while writing
–ce	hayváncasına	bestially
–leyin	gecéleyin	by night
–me	anlamádı	he/she/it did not understand
–yor	gelı̇́yor	he/she/it is coming

• Enclitic words, which shift the accentuation to the previous syllable, e.g., –ol (meaning to be), mi (denoting a question), gibi (meaning similar to), için (for), ki (that), de (too)

Enclictic suffix	Turkish example	Meaning in English
–ol as a separate word	arkadaşím idi	he/she was my friend
–ol as a suffix	arkadaşímdı	he/she was my friend
mi	anlamadí mı	did he/she not understand?
gibi	sizı̇́n gibi	like you
için	benı̇́m için	for me
ki	diyorlár ki ólmıyacak	they are saying that it won't happen
de	biz de	us too

Syntax

Sentence groups

Turkish has two groups of sentences: verbal and nominal sentences. In the case of a verbal sentence, the predicate is a finite verb, while the predicate in nominal sentence will have either no overt verb or a verb in the form of the ol or y (variants of "be"). Examples of both are given below:

Sentence type	Turkish		English
	Subject	Predicate
Verbal	Necla	okula gitti	Necla went to school
Nominal (no verb)	Necla	öğretmen	Necla is a teacher
(copula)	Necla	ev-de-y-miş (hyphens delineate suffixes)	Apparently Necla is at home

Negation

The two groups of sentences have different ways of forming negation. A nominal sentence can be negated with the addition of the word değil. For example, the sentence above would become Necla öğretmen değil ('Necla is not a teacher'). However, the verbal sentence requires the addition of a negative suffix -me to the verb (the suffix comes after the stem but before the tense): Necla okula gitmedi ('Necla did not go to school').

Yes/no questions

In the case of a verbal sentence, an interrogative clitic mi is added after the verb and stands alone, for example Necla okula gitti mi? ('Did Necla go to school?'). In the case of a nominal sentence, then mi comes after the predicate but before the personal ending, so for example Necla, siz öğretmen misiniz? ('Necla, are you [formal, plural] a teacher?').

Word order

Word order in simple Turkish sentences is generally , as in Korean and , but unlike English, for verbal sentences and subject-predicate for nominal sentences. However, as Turkish possesses a case-marking system, and most grammatical relations are shown using morphological markers, often the SOV structure has diminished relevance and may vary. The SOV structure may thus be considered a "pragmatic word order" of language, one that does not rely on word order for grammatical purposes.

Immediately preverbal

Consider the following simple sentence which demonstrates that the focus in Turkish is on the element that immediately precedes the verb:

Word order				Focus
SOV	Ahmet Ahmet	yumurta-yı egg (accusative)	yedi ate	unmarked: Ahmet ate the egg
SVO	Ahmet	yedi	yumurta-yı	the focus is on the subject: Ahmet (it was Ahmet who ate the egg)
OVS	Yumurta-yı	yedi	Ahmet	the focus is on the object: egg (it was an egg that Ahmet ate)

Postpredicate

The postpredicate position signifies what is referred to as background information in Turkish- information that is assumed to be known to both the speaker and the listener, or information that is included in the context. Consider the following examples:

Sentence type	Word order
Nominal	S-predicate	Bu ev güzelmiş (apparently this house is beautiful)	unmarked
	Predicate-s	Güzelmiş bu ev (it is apparently beautiful, this house)	it is understood that the sentence is about this house
Verbal	SOV	Bana da bir kahve getir (get me a coffee too)	unmarked
		Bana da getir bir kahve (get me one too, a coffee)	it is understood that it is a coffee that the speaker wants

Topic

There has been some debate among linguists whether Turkish is a subject-prominent (like English) or (like Japanese and Korean) language, with recent scholarship implying that it is indeed both subject and topic-prominent. This has direct implications for word order as it is possible for the subject to be included in the in Turkish. There can be S/O inversion in sentences where the topic is of greater importance than the subject.

Grammar

ප්‍රධාන ලිපිය:

Turkish is an and frequently uses , and specifically suffixes, or endings. One word can have many affixes and these can also be used to create new words, such as creating a verb from a noun, or a noun from a verbal root (see the section on Word formation). Most affixes indicate the grammatical function of the word. The only native prefixes are intensifying syllables used with adjectives or adverbs: for example sımsıcak ("boiling hot" < sıcak) and masmavi ("bright blue" < mavi).

The extensive use of affixes can give rise to long words, e.g. Çekoslovakyalılaştıramadıklarımızdanmışsınızcasına, meaning "In the manner of you being one of those that we apparently couldn't manage to convert to Czechoslovakian". While this case is contrived, long words frequently occur in normal Turkish, as in this heading of a newspaper obituary column: Bayramlaşamadıklarımız (Bayram [festival]-Recipr-Impot-Partic-Plur-PossPl1; "Those of our number with whom we cannot exchange the season's greetings"). Another example can be seen in the final word of this heading of the online Turkish Spelling Guide (İmlâ Kılavuzu): Dilde birlik, ulusal birliğin vazgeçilemezlerindendir ("Unity in language is among the indispensables [dispense-Pass-Impot-Plur-PossS3-Abl-Copula] of national unity ~ Linguistic unity is a of national unity").

Nouns

Gender

Turkish does not have grammatical gender and the sex of persons do not affect the forms of words. The third-person pronoun o may refer to "he," "she" or "it." Despite this lack, Turkish still has ways of indicating gender in nouns:

1. Most domestic animals have male and female forms, e.g., aygır (stallion), kısrak (mare), boğa (bull), inek (cow).
2. For other animals, the sex may be indicated by adding the word dişi (female) before the corresponding noun, e.g., dişi kedi (female cat).
3. For people, the female sex may be indicated by adding the word kız (girl) or kadın (woman), e.g., kadın kahraman (heroine) instead of kahraman (hero).
4. Some foreign words of French or Arabic origin already have separate female forms, e.g., aktris (actress).
5. The feminine suffix –ica is used in three borrowings: kraliçe (queen), imparatoriçe (empress) and çariçe (tsarina). This suffix was used in the neologism tanrıça (< Old Turkic tanrı "god").

Case

There is no in Turkish, but definiteness of the object is implied when the accusative ending is used (see below). Turkish nouns decline by taking case endings. There are six in Turkish, with all the endings following vowel harmony (shown in the table using the shorthand superscript notation). Since the postposition ile often gets suffixed onto the noun, some analyze it as an , although it takes the genitive with personal pronouns, singular demonstratives, and interrogative kim. The marker -ler ² immediately follows the noun before any case or other affixes (e.g. köylerin "of the villages").^[]

Case	Ending	Examples		Meaning
		köy "village"	ağaç "tree"
	∅ (none)	köy	ağaç	(the) village/tree
	-i ^4	köyü	ağacı	the village/tree
	-in ^4	köyün	ağacın	the village's/tree's of the village/tree
	-e ²	köye	ağaca	to the village/tree
	-de ²	köyde	ağaçta	in/on/at the village/tree
	-den ²	köyden	ağaçtan	from the village/tree
	-le ²	köyle	ağaçla	with the village/tree

The accusative case marker is used only for definite objects; compare (bir) ağaç gördük "we saw a tree" with ağacı gördük "we saw the tree". The plural marker -ler ² is generally not used when a class or category is meant: ağaç gördük can equally well mean "we saw trees [as we walked through the forest]"—as opposed to ağaçları gördük "we saw the trees [in question]".^[]

The declension of ağaç illustrates two important features of Turkish phonology: consonant in (ağaçtan, ağaçta) and of final consonants before vowels (ağacın, ağaca, ağacı).^[]

Additionally, nouns can take suffixes that assign : for example -imiz ⁴, "our". With the addition of the (for example -im ⁴, "I am") complete sentences can be formed. The particle mi ⁴ immediately follows the word being questioned, and also follows vowel harmony: köye mi? "[going] to the village?", ağaç mı? "[is it a] tree?".^[]

Turkish	English
ev	(the) house
evler	(the) houses
evin	your (sing.) house
eviniz	your (pl./formal) house
evim	my house
evimde	at my house
evlerinizin	of your houses
evlerinizden	from your houses
evlerinizdendi	(he/she/it) was from your houses
evlerinizdenmiş	(he/she/it) was (apparently/said to be) from your houses
Evinizdeyim.	I am at your house.
Evinizdeymişim.	I was (apparently) at your house.
Evinizde miyim?	Am I at your house?

Personal pronouns

The Turkish in the nominative case are ben (1s), sen (2s), o (3s), biz (1pl), siz (2pl, or 2h), and onlar (3pl). They are declined regularly with some exceptions: benim (1s gen.); bizim (1pl gen.); bana (1s dat.); sana (2s dat.); and the oblique forms of o use the root on. As mentioned before, all demonstrative singular and personal pronouns take the genitive when ile is affixed onto it: benimle (1s ins.), bizimle (1pl ins.); but onunla (3s ins.), onlarla (3pl ins.). All other pronouns (reflexive kendi and so on) are declined regularly.^[]

Noun phrases (tamlama)

Two nouns, or groups of nouns, may be joined in either of two ways:

• definite (possessive) compound (belirtili tamlama). E.g. Türkiye'nin sesi "the voice of Turkey (radio station)": the voice belonging to Turkey. Here the relationship is shown by the genitive ending -in⁴ added to the first noun; the second noun has the third-person suffix of possession -(s)i⁴.
• indefinite (qualifying) compound (belirtisiz tamlama). E.g. Türkiye Cumhuriyeti "Turkey-Republic = the Republic of Turkey": not the republic belonging to Turkey, but the Republic that is Turkey. Here the first noun has no ending; but the second noun has the ending (s)i⁴—the same as in definite compounds.^[]

The following table illustrates these principles. In some cases the constituents of the compounds are themselves compounds; for clarity these subsidiary compounds are marked with [square brackets]. The suffixes involved in the linking are underlined. Note that if the second noun group already had a possessive suffix (because it is a compound by itself), no further suffix is added.

Linked nouns and noun groups

Definite (possessive)	Indefinite (qualifier)	Complement	Meaning
kimsenin		yanıtı	nobody's answer
	"kimse"	yanıtı	the answer "nobody"
Atatürk'ün		evi	Atatürk's house
	Atatürk	Bulvarı	(named after, not belonging to Atatürk)
Orhan'ın		adı	Orhan's name
	"Orhan"	adı	the name "Orhan"
	r	sessizi	the consonant r
[r sessizi]nin		söylenişi	pronunciation of the consonant r
	Türk	[Dil Kurumu]	Turkish language-association
	[Türk Dili]	Dergisi	Turkish-language magazine
	Ford	[aile arabası]	Ford family car
Ford'un		[aile arabası]	(Mr) Ford's family car
[Ford ailesi]nin		arabası	the Ford family's car
	Ankara	[Kız Lisesi]	Ankara Girls' School
	[yıl sonu]	sınavları	year-end examinations
Bulgaristan'ın		[İstanbul Başkonsolosluğu]	the Istanbul Consulate-General of Bulgaria (located in Istanbul, but belonging to Bulgaria)
	[ [İstanbul Üniversitesi] [Edebiyat Fakültesi] ]	[ [Türk Edebiyatı] Profesörü]	Professor of Turkish Literature in the Faculty of Literature of the University of Istanbul
	ne oldum	delisi	"what-have-I-become!" madman = who gives himself airs

As the last example shows, the qualifying expression may be a substantival sentence rather than a noun or noun group.

There is a third way of linking the nouns where both nouns take no suffixes (takısız tamlama). However, in this case the first noun acts as an adjective, e.g. Demir kapı (iron gate), elma yanak ("apple cheek", i.e. red cheek), kömür göz ("coal eye", i.e. black eye) :

Adjectives

Turkish adjectives are not . However most adjectives can also be used as nouns, in which case they are declined: e.g. güzel ("beautiful") → güzeller ("(the) beautiful ones / people"). Used attributively, adjectives precede the nouns they modify. The adjectives var ("existent") and yok ("") are used in many cases where English would use "there is" or "have", e.g. süt yok ("there is no milk", lit. "(the) milk (is) non-existent"); the construction "noun 1-GEN noun 2-POSS var/yok" can be translated "noun 1 has/doesn't have noun 2"; imparatorun elbisesi yok "the emperor has no clothes" ("(the) emperor-of clothes-his non-existent"); kedimin ayakkabıları yoktu ("my cat had no shoes", lit. "cat-my-of shoe-plur.-its non-existent-past tense").^[]

Verbs

Turkish verbs indicate . They can be made negative, potential ("can"), or non-potential ("cannot"). Furthermore, Turkish verbs show (, , , and ), (, , , , and ), and . Negation is expressed by the -me²- immediately following the stem.

Turkish	English
gel-	(to) come
gelebil-	(to) be able to come
gelme-	not (to) come
geleme-	(to) be unable to come
gelememiş	Apparently (s)he couldn't come
gelebilecek	(s)he'll be able to come
gelmeyebilir	(s)he may (possibly) not come
gelebilirsen	if you can come
gelinir	(passive) one comes, people come
gelebilmeliydin	you should have been able to come
gelebilseydin	if you could have come
gelmeliydin	you should have come

Verb tenses

(Note. For the sake of simplicity the term "tense" is used here throughout, although for some forms "aspect" or "mood" might be more appropriate.) There are 9 simple and 20 compound tenses in Turkish. 9 simple tenses are simple past (di'li geçmiş), inferential past (miş'li geçmiş), present continuous, simple present (), future, optative, subjunctive, necessitative ("must") and imperative. There are three groups of compound forms. Story (hikaye) is the witnessed past of the above forms (except command), rumor (rivayet) is the unwitnessed past of the above forms (except simple past and command), conditional (koşul) is the conditional form of the first five basic tenses. In the example below the second person singular of the verb gitmek ("go"), stem gid-/git-, is shown.

English of the basic form	Basic tense	Story (hikâye)	Rumor (rivayet)	Condition (koşul)
you went	gittin	gittiydin	–	gittiysen
you have gone	gitmişsin	gitmiştin	gitmişmişsin	gitmişsen
you are going	gidiyorsun	gidiyordun	gidiyormuşsun	gidiyorsan
you (are wont to) go	gidersin	giderdin	gidermişsin	gidersen
you will go	gideceksin	gidecektin	gidecekmişsin	gideceksen
if only you go	gitsen	gitseydin	gitseymişsin	–
may you go	gidesin	gideydin	gideymişsin	–
you must go	gitmelisin	gitmeliydin	gitmeliymişsin	–
go! (imperative)	git	–	–	–

There are also so-called combined verbs, which are created by suffixing certain verb stems (like bil or ver) to the original stem of a verb. Bil is the suffix for the sufficiency mood. It is the equivalent of the English auxiliary verbs "able to", "can" or "may". Ver is the suffix for the swiftness mood, kal for the perpetuity mood and yaz for the approach ("almost") mood. Thus, while gittin means "you went", gidebildin means "you could go" and gidiverdin means "you went swiftly". The tenses of the combined verbs are formed the same way as for simple verbs.

Attributive verbs (participles)

Turkish verbs have , including present, similar to the English (with the ending -en²); future (-ecek²); indirect/inferential past (-miş⁴); and (-er² or -ir⁴).

The most important function of some of these attributive verbs is to form modifying phrases equivalent to the found in most European languages. The subject of the verb in an -en² form is (possibly implicitly) in the third person (he/she/it/they); this form, when used in a modifying phrase, does not change according to number. The other attributive forms used in these constructions are the future (-ecek²) and an older form (-dik⁴), which covers both present and past meanings. These two forms take "personal endings", which have the same form as the but indicate the person and possibly number of the subject of the attributive verb; for example, yediğim means "what I eat", yediğin means "what you eat", and so on. The use of these "personal or relative participles" is illustrated in the following table, in which the examples are presented according to the grammatical case which would be seen in the equivalent English relative clause.

English equivalent		Example	Translation
Case of relative pronoun	Pronoun		Literal	Idiomatic
Nominative	who, which/that	şimdi konuşan adam	"now speaking man"	the man (who is) now speaking
Genitive	whose (nom.)	babası şimdi konuşan adam	"father-is now speaking man"	the man whose father is now speaking
	whose (acc.)	babasını dün gördüğüm adam	"father-is-ACC yesterday seen-my man"	the man whose father I saw yesterday
	at whose	resimlerine baktığımız ressam	"pictures-is-to looked-our artist"	the artist whose pictures we looked at
	of which	muhtarı seçildiği köy	"mayor-its been-chosen-his village"	the village of which he was elected mayor
	of which	muhtarı seçilmek istediği köy		the village of which he wishes to be elected mayor
Remaining cases (incl. prepositions)	whom, which	yazdığım mektup	"written-my letter"	the letter (which) I wrote
	from which	çıktığımız kapı	"emerged-our door"	the door from which we emerged
	on which	geldikleri vapur	"come-their ship"	the ship they came on
	which + subordinate clause	yaklaştığını anladığı hapishane günleri	"approach-their-ACC understood-his prison days-its"	the prison days (which) he knew were approaching

Vocabulary

ප්‍රධාන ලිපිය:

Latest 2010 edition of Büyük Türkçe Sözlük (Great Turkish Dictionary), the official dictionary of the Turkish language published by Turkish Language Association, contains 616,767 words, expressions, terms and nouns, including place names and person names, both from the standard language and from dialects.

Word formation

Turkish extensively uses to from nouns and verbal stems. The majority of Turkish words originate from the application of derivative suffixes to a relatively small set of core vocabulary.

Turkish obeys certain principles when it comes to suffixation. Most suffixes in Turkish will have more than one form, depending on the vowels and consonants in the root- vowel harmony rules will apply; consonant-initial suffixes will follow the voiced/ voiceless character of the consonant in the final unit of the root; and in the case of vowel-initial suffixes an additional consonant may be inserted if the root ends in a vowel, or the suffix may lose its initial vowel. There is also a prescribed order of affixation of suffixes- as a rule of thumb, derivative suffixes precede inflectional suffixes which are followed by , as can be seen in the example set of words derived from a substantive root below:

Turkish	Components	English	Word class
göz	göz	eye	Noun
gözlük	göz + -lük	eyeglasses	Noun
gözlükçü	göz + -lük + -çü	optician	Noun
gözlükçülük	göz + -lük + -çü + -lük	optician's trade	Noun
gözlem	göz + -lem	observation	Noun
gözlemci	göz + -lem + -ci	observer	Noun
gözle-	göz + -le	observe	Verb (order)
gözlemek	göz + -le + -mek	to observe	Verb (infinitive)
gözetlemek	göz + -et + -le + -mek	to peep	Verb (infinitive)

Another example, starting from a verbal root:

Turkish	Components	English	Word class
yat-	yat-	lie down	Verb (order)
yatmak	yat-mak	to lie down	Verb (infinitive)
yatık	yat- + -(ı)k	leaning	Adjective
yatak	yat- + -ak	bed, place to sleep	Noun
yatay	yat- + -ay	horizontal	Adjective
yatkın	yat- + -gın	inclined to; stale (from lying too long)	Adjective
yatır-	yat- + -(ı)r-	lay down	Verb (order)
yatırmak	yat- + -(ı)r-mak	to lay down something/someone	Verb (infinitive)
yatırım	yat- + -(ı)r- + -(ı)m	laying down; deposit, investment	Noun
yatırımcı	yat- + -(ı)r- + -(ı)m + -cı	depositor, investor	Noun

New words are also frequently formed by two existing words into a new one, as in German. Compounds can be of two types- bare and (s)I. The bare compounds, both nouns and adjectives are effectively two words juxtaposed without the addition of suffixes for example the word for girlfriend kızarkadaş (kız+arkadaş) or black pepper karabiber (kara+biber). A few examples of compound words are given below:

Turkish	English	Constituent words	Literal meaning
pazartesi	Monday	pazar ("Sunday") and ertesi ("after")	after Sunday
bilgisayar	computer	bilgi ("information") and say- ("to count")	information counter
gökdelen	skyscraper	gök ("sky") and del- ("to pierce")	sky piercer
başparmak	thumb	baş ("prime") and parmak ("finger")	primary finger
önyargı	prejudice	ön ("before") and yargı ("splitting; judgement")	fore-judging

However, the majority of compound words in Turkish are (s)I compounds, which means that the second word will be marked by the 3rd person possessive suffix. A few such examples are given in the table below (note ):

Turkish	English	Constituent words	Possessive Suffix
el çantası	handbag	el (hand) and çanta (bag)	+sı
masa örtüsü	tablecloth	masa (table) and örtü (cover)	+sü
çay bardağı	tea glass	çay (tea) and bardak (glass)	+ı (the k changes to ğ)

Writing system

ප්‍රධාන ලිපියන්: සහ

introducing the new Turkish alphabet to the people of . September 20, 1928. (Cover of the French L'Illustration magazine)

Turkish is written using a introduced in 1928 by to replace the , a version of alphabet. The Ottoman alphabet marked only three different vowels—long ā, ū and ī—and included several redundant consonants, such as variants of z (which were distinguished in Arabic but not in Turkish). The omission of short vowels in the Arabic script was claimed to make it particularly unsuitable for Turkish, which has eight vowels.

The reform of the script was an important step in the of the period. The task of preparing the new alphabet and selecting the necessary modifications for sounds specific to Turkish was entrusted to a composed of prominent linguists, academics, and writers. The introduction of the new Turkish alphabet was supported by public education centers opened throughout the country, cooperation with publishing companies, and encouragement by Atatürk himself, who toured the country teaching the new letters to the public. As a result, there was a dramatic increase in literacy from its original, pre-modern levels.^[]

The Latin alphabet was applied to the Turkish language for educational purposes even before the 20th-century reform. Instances include a 1635 Latin-Albanian dictionary by , who also incorporated several sayings in the Turkish language, as an appendix to his work (e.g. alma agatsdan irak duschamas—"An apple does not fall far from its tree").

Turkish now has an alphabet suited to the sounds of the language: the spelling is largely , with one letter corresponding to each . Most of the letters are used approximately as in English, the main exceptions being ⟨c⟩, which denotes [dʒ] (⟨j⟩ being used for the [ʒ] found in Persian and European loans); and the undotted ⟨ı⟩, representing [ɯ]. As in German, ⟨ö⟩ and ⟨ü⟩ represent [ø] and [y]. The letter ⟨ğ⟩, in principle, denotes [ɣ] but has the property of lengthening the preceding vowel and assimilating any subsequent vowel. The letters ⟨ş⟩ and ⟨ç⟩ represent [ʃ] and [tʃ], respectively. A is written over following ⟨k⟩ and ⟨g⟩ when these consonants represent [c] and [ɟ]—almost exclusively in Arabic and Persian .

The Turkish alphabet consists of 29 letters (q, x, w omitted and ç, ş, ğ, ı, ö, ü added); the complete list is:

a, b, c, ç, d, e, f, g, ğ, h, ı, i, j, k, l, m, n, o, ö, p, r, s, ş, t, u, ü, v, y, and z (Note that capital of i is İ and lowercase I is ı.)

The specifically Turkish letters and spellings described above are illustrated in this table:

Turkish spelling	Pronunciation	Meaning
	ˈdʒaːɫoːɫu	[İstanbul district]
çalıştığı	tʃaɫɯʃtɯː	where/that (s)he works/worked
müjde	myʒˈde	good news
lazım	laːˈzɯm	necessary
mahkûm	mahˈcum	condemned

Sample

Dostlar Beni Hatırlasın by (1894–1973), a and highly regarded poet in the tradition.

Orthography		Translation
Ben giderim adım kalır	bæn ɟid̪e̞ɾim äd̪ɯm käɫɯɾ	I depart, my name remains
Dostlar beni hatırlasın	d̪o̞st̪ɫäɾ be̞ni hätɯɾɫäsɯn	May friends remember me
Düğün olur bayram gelir	d̪yjyn o̞ɫuɾ bäjɾäm ɟe̞liɾ	There are weddings, there are feasts
Dostlar beni hatırlasın	d̪o̞st̪ɫäɾ be̞ni hätɯɾɫäsɯn	May friends remember me
Can kafeste durmaz uçar	d͡ʒäŋ käfe̞st̪e̞ d̪uɾmäz ut͡ʃäɾ	The soul won't stay caged, it flies away
Dünya bir han konan göçer	d̪ynjä biɾ häŋ ko̞nän ɟø̞t͡ʃæɾ	The world is an inn, residents depart
Ay dolanır yıllar geçer	äj d̪o̞ɫänɯɾ jɯɫːäɾ ɟe̞t͡ʃæɾ	The moon wanders, years pass by
Dostlar beni hatırlasın	d̪o̞st̪ɫäɾ be̞ni hätɯɾɫäsɯn	May friends remember me
Can bedenden ayrılacak	d͡ʒän be̞d̪ænd̪æn äjɾɯɫäd͡ʒäk	The soul will leave the body
Tütmez baca yanmaz ocak	t̪yt̪mæz bäd͡ʒä jänmäz o̞d͡ʒäk	The chimney won't smoke, furnace won't burn
Selam olsun kucak kucak	se̞läːm o̞ɫsuŋ kud͡ʒäk kud͡ʒäk	Goodbye goodbye to you all
Dostlar beni hatırlasın	d̪o̞st̪ɫäɾ be̞ni hätɯɾɫäsɯn	May friends remember me
Açar solar türlü çiçek	ät͡ʃäɾ so̞läɾ t̪yɾly t͡ʃit͡ʃe̞c	Various flowers bloom and fade
Kimler gülmüş kim gülecek	cimlæɾ ɟylmyʃ cim ɟyle̞d͡ʒe̞c	Someone laughed, someone will laugh
Murat yalan ölüm gerçek	muɾät jäɫän ø̞lym ɟæɾt͡ʃe̞c	Wishes are lies, death is real
Dostlar beni hatırlasın	d̪o̞st̪ɫäɾ be̞ni hätɯɾɫäsɯn	May friends remember me
Gün ikindi akşam olur	ɟyn icindi äkʃäm o̞ɫuɾ	Morning and afternoon turn to night
Gör ki başa neler gelir	ɟø̞ɾ ci bäʃä ne̞læɾ ɟe̞liɾ	And many things happen to a person anyway
Veysel gider adı kalır	ʋe̞jsæl ɟidæɾ äd̪ɯ käɫɯɾ	Veysel departs, his name remains
Dostlar beni hatırlasın	d̪o̞st̪ɫäɾ be̞ni hätɯɾɫäsɯn	May friends remember me

Whistled language

ප්‍රධාන ලිපිය:

In the Turkish province of , the locals in the village of have communicated using a of Turkish for over 400 years. The region consists of a series of deep valleys and the unusual mode of communication allows for conversation over distances of up to 5 kilometres. Turkish authorities estimate that there are still around 10,000 people using the whistled language. However, in 2011 found whistling Turkish to be a dying language and included it in its . Since then the local education directorate has introduced it as a course in schools in the region, hoping to revive its use.

A study was conducted by a German scientist of Turkish origin at Ruhr University, observing 31 "speakers" of kuş dili ("bird's tongue") from Kuşköy, and he found that the whistled language mirrored the lexical and syntactical structure of Turkish language.

Turkish computer keyboard

A Turkish computer keyboard with Q (QWERTY) layout.

Turkish language uses two standardised , known as Turkish Q (QWERTY) and Turkish F, with Turkish Q being the most common.

See also

Notes

1. Turkish language is currently official in , and districts. In addition to that, it is considered an educational language for by
2. Turkish language is currently official in , , , and municipalities.
3. Turkish language is currently official in and

References

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2. Kuribayashi, Yuu (2012). (PDF). Asian and African Languages and Linguistics. 7: 39–51. 2021-02-26 දින මුල් පිටපත (PDF) වෙතින් සංරක්ෂණය කරන ලදී. සම්ප්‍රවේශය 2022-10-23.
3. Karcı, Durmuş (2018), "The Effects of Language Characters and Identity of Meskhetian Turkish in Kazakhstan", Kesit Akademi Dergisi 4 (13) 
4. Behnstedt, Peter (2008). "Syria". In Versteegh, Kees; Eid, Mushira; Elgibali, Alaa; Woidich, Manfred; Zaborski, Andrzej (eds.). Encyclopedia of Arabic Language and Linguistics. Vol. 4. . p. 402. ISBN .
5. "Bosnia and Herzegovina", The European Charter for Regional Or Minority Languages: Collected Texts, , 2010, pp. 107–108,
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6. Rehm, Georg; Uszkoreit, Hans, eds. (2012), "The Croatian Language in the European Information Society", The Croatian Language in the Digital Age, , p. 51,
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7. Franceschini, Rita (2014). "Italy and the Italian-Speaking Regions". In Fäcke, Christiane (ed.). Manual of Language Acquisition. Walter de Gruyter GmbH. p. 546. ISBN . In Croatia, Albanian, Bosnian, Bulgarian, Czech, German, Hebrew, Hungarian, Italian, Macedonian, Polish, Romanian, Romany, Rusyn, Russian, Montenegrin, Slovak, Slovenian, Serbian, Turkish, and Ukrainian are recognized (EACEA 2012, 18, 50s)
8. Trudgill, Peter; Schreier, Daniel (2006), "Greece and Cyprus / Griechenland und Zypern", in Ulrich, Ammon, Sociolinguistics / Soziolinguistik, Walter de Gruyter, p. 1886,
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9. [1] Text: Article 1 of the declaration stipulated that no law, regulation, or official action could interfere with the rights outlined for the minorities. Although Arabic became the official language of Iraq, Kurdish became a corollary official language in Sulaimaniya, and both Kurdish and Turkish became official languages in Kirkuk and Kifri.
10. "Türkmenler, Türkçe tabelalardan memnun – Son Dakika".
11. [2] Kurdistan: Constitution of the Iraqi Kurdistan Region
12. "Municipal language compliance in Kosovo". OSCE Minsk Group. Turkish language is currently official in Prizren and Mamuşa/Mamushë/Mamuša municipalities. In 2007 and 2008, the municipalities of Gjilan/Gnjilane, southern Mitrovicë/Mitrovica, Prishtinë/Priština and Vushtrri/Vučitrn also recognized Turkish as a language in official use.
13. [3] Text: Turkish is co-official in Centar Zupa and Plasnica
14. "Romania", The European Charter for Regional Or Minority Languages: Collected Texts, , 2010, pp. 135–136,
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15. Nordhoff, Sebastian; Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin, eds. (2013). "Turkish". Glottolog 2.2. Leipzig: Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology. {{}}: Invalid |display-editors=4 (); Unknown parameter |chapterurl= ignored ()
16. Boeschoten, Henrik. Turkic Languages in Contact.
17. . 2017-07-01 දින මුල් පිටපත වෙතින් සංරක්ෂණය කරන ලදී.
18. "As the E.U.'s Language Roster Swells, So Does the Burden", The New York Times, 4 January 2017, https://www.nytimes.com/2017/01/04/world/what-in-the-world/eu-official-languages.html, ප්‍රතිෂ්ඨාපනය 17 March 2017 
19. Aalto, P. "Iranian Contacts of the Turks in Pre-Islamic times," in Studia Turcica, ed. L. Ligeti, Budapest, 1971, pp. 29–37.
20. Benzing, J. Einführung in das Studium der altäischen Philologie und der Turkologie, Wiesbaden, 1953.
21. Gandjeï, T. "Über die türkischen und mongolischen Elemente der persischen Dichtung der Ilchan-Zeit," in Ural-altaische Jahrbücher 30, 1958, pp. 229–31.
22. Erdal, Marcel (March 2004). A Grammar Of Old Turkic.
23. "A Database of Turkic Runiform Inscriptions".
24. Findley^[]
25. Soucek 2000
26. Glenny 2001, p. 99
27. See Lewis (2002) for a thorough treatment of the Turkish language reform.
28. . (තුර්කි බසින්). March 16, 2007 දින මුල් පිටපත වෙතින් සංරක්ෂණය කරන ලදී. සම්ප්‍රවේශය 2007-03-18.
29. Szurek, Emmanuel (2015-02-17). Aymes, Marc (ed.). Order and Compromise: Government Practices in Turkey from the Late Ottoman Empire to the Early 21st Century (ඉංග්‍රීසි බසින්). . p. 94. ISBN .
30. See Lewis (2002): 2–3 for the first two translations. For the third see Bedi Yazıcı. (තුර්කි බසින්). 2007-09-28 දින මුල් පිටපත වෙතින් සංරක්ෂණය කරන ලදී. සම්ප්‍රවේශය 2007-09-28.
31. . Çok Bilgi. 14 July 2019 දින මුල් පිටපත වෙතින් සංරක්ෂණය කරන ලදී. සම්ප්‍රවේශය 29 May 2014.
32. Mütercim Asım (1799). Burhân-ı Katı Tercemesi (තුර්කි බසින්). İstanbul.
33. "Iraq". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2016. https://www.britannica.com/place/Iraq/Arabs#toc22939. 
34. , ed. (2005). "Ethnologue: Languages of the World, Fifteenth edition. Report for language code:tur (Turkish)". සම්ප්‍රවේශය 2011-09-04.
35. See for example citations given in Cindark, Ibrahim/Aslan, Sema (2004): Deutschlandtürkisch?. Institut für Deutsche Sprache, page 3.
36. (2006). "Special Eurobarometer 243: Europeans and their Languages (Survey)" (PDF). . සම්ප්‍රවේශය 2010-02-14.
37. , ed. (2005). "Ethnologue: Languages of the World, Fifteenth edition. Report for language code:kmr (Kurdish)". සම්ප්‍රවේශය 2007-03-18.
38. "Azerbaijan Grapples With the Rise of Turkish Language | Eurasianet". eurasianet.org (ඉංග්‍රීසි බසින්). සම්ප්‍රවේශය 2022-08-18.
39. "Kosovo". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2016. https://www.britannica.com/place/Kosovo#toc296713. 
40. "Kosovo starts using Turkish as fifth official language in documents". . 9 July 2015.
41. . . 2002. June 13, 2007 දින මුල් පිටපත වෙතින් සංරක්ෂණය කරන ලදී. සම්ප්‍රවේශය 2016-02-10.
42. Güçlü, Yücel (January 2007). "Who Owns Kirkuk? The Turkoman Case". Middle East Quarterly.
43. The name TDK itself exemplifies this process. The words tetkik and cemiyet in the original name are both Arabic loanwords (the final -i of cemiyeti being a Turkish possessive suffix); kurum is a native Turkish word based on the verb kurmak, "set up, found".^[]
44. Campbell, George (1995). "Turkish". Concise compendium of the world's languages. London: Routledge. p. 547. 
45. "En iyi İstanbul Türkçesini kim konuşur?". Milliyet. සම්ප්‍රවේශය 2017-12-30.
46. Johanson, Lars (2001), Discoveries on the Turkic linguistic map, Swedish Research Institute in Istanbul, http://www.srii.org/Map.pdf, ප්‍රතිෂ්ඨාපනය 2007-03-18 
47. Özsoy
48. Akalın, Şükrü Halûk (January 2003). (PDF). Türk Dili (තුර්කි බසින්). 85 (613).  1301-465X. June 27, 2007 දින මුල් පිටපත (PDF) වෙතින් සංරක්ෂණය කරන ලදී. සම්ප්‍රවේශය 2007-03-18.
49. Shashi, Shyam Singh (1992). Encyclopaedia of Humanities and Social Sciences. Anmol Publications. p. 47. සම්ප්‍රවේශය 2008-03-26.
50. Aydıngün, Ayşegül; Harding, Çiğdem Balım; Hoover, Matthew; Kuznetsov, Igor; Swerdlow, Steve (2006), Meskhetian Turks: An Introduction to their History, Culture, and Resettelment Experiences, Center for Applied Linguistics, http://www.cal.org/CO/pdffiles/mturks.pdf 
51. Brendemoen, B. (1996). "Phonological Aspects of Greek-Turkish Language Contact in Trabzon". Conference on Turkish in Contact, Netherlands Institute for Advanced Study (NIAS) in the Humanities and Social Sciences, Wassenaar, 5–6 February 1996. 
52. Balta, Evangelia (Fall 2017). "Translating Books from Greek into Turkish for the Karamanli Orthodox Christians of Anatolia (1718–1856)". International Journal of Turkish Studies. 23 (1–2): 20 – via Ebsco.
53. Zimmer & Orgun (1999), pp. 154–155.
54. Petrova, Olga; Plapp, Rosemary; Ringen, Catherine; Szentgyörgyi, Szilárd (2006). (PDF). The Linguistic Review (ඉංග්‍රීසි බසින්). 23 (1): 1–35. doi:10.1515/tlr.2006.001.  0167-6318.  42712078. 2018-09-08 දින මුල් පිටපත (PDF) වෙතින් සංරක්ෂණය කරන ලදී.
55. Handbook of the IPA, p. 155
56. Lewis 2001, pp. 93–4, 6
57. (තුර්කි බසින්). . 2012-07-28 දින මුල් පිටපත වෙතින් සංරක්ෂණය කරන ලදී. සම්ප්‍රවේශය 2013-01-13.
58. "Turkish Consonant Mutation". turkishbasics.com (ඉංග්‍රීසි බසින්).
59. Lewis 2001, p. 10
60. The vowel represented by ⟨ı⟩ is also commonly transcribed as ⟨ɨ⟩ in linguistic literature.
61. Goksel, Asli; Kerslake, Celia (2005). Turkish: A Comprehensive Grammar. Routledge. pp. 24–25. ISBN .
62. Khalilzadeh, Amir (Winter 2010). "Vowel Harmony in Turkish". Karadeniz Araştırmaları: Balkan, Kafkas, Doğu Avrupa Ve Anadolu İncelemeleri Dergisi. 6 (24): 141–150.
63. Mundy, C. Turkish Syntax as a System of Qualification. Oxford, 1957, pp. 279–305.
64. Deny, J. Grammaire de la langue turque. Paris, 1963.
65. von Gabain, A. Alttürkische Grammatik. Leipzig, 1950.
66. Lewis 1953, p. 21
67. For the terms twofold and fourfold, as well as the superscript notation, see Lewis (1953):21–22. In his more recent works Lewis prefers to omit the superscripts, on the grounds that "there is no need for this once the principle has been grasped" (Lewis [2001]:18).
68. Underhill, Robert (1976). Turkish Grammar. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press. p. 25. ISBN .
69. In modern Turkish orthography, an apostrophe is used to separate proper names from any suffixes.
70. Husby, Olaf. "Diagnostic use of nonword repetition for detection of language impairment among Turkish speaking minority children in Norway". Working Papers Department of Language and Communication Studies NTNV (ඉංග්‍රීසි බසින්). 3/2006: 139–149 – via Academia.edu.
71. Boeschoten, Hendrik; Johanson, Lars; Milani, Vildan (2006). Turkic Languages in Contact. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. ISBN .
72. Goksel, Asli; Kerslake, Celia (2005). Turkish: A Comprehensive Grammar. Routledge. ISBN .
73. Underhill, Robert (1976). Turkish Grammar. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press. ISBN .
74. Thompson, Sandra (April 1978). "Modern English from a Typological Point of View: Some Implications of the Function of Word Order". Linguistische Berlichte. 1978 (54): 19–35 – via ProQuest.
75. Erguvanlı, Eser Emine (1984). The Function of Word Order in Turkish Grammar. Linguistics Vol. 106. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN .
76. Kiliçasaslan, Yılmaz. "A Typological Approach to Sentence Structure in Turkish" (PDF).
77. This section draws heavily on Lewis (2001) and, to a lesser extent, Lewis (1953). Only the most important references are specifically flagged with footnotes.
78. see Lewis (2001) Ch XIV.
79. "The prefix, which is accented, is modelled on the first syllable of the simple adjective or adverb but with the substitution of m, p, r, or s for the last consonant of that syllable." Lewis (2001):55. The prefix retains the first vowel of the base form and thus exhibits a form of reverse vowel harmony.
80. This "splendid word" appeared at the time of Bayram, the festival marking the end of the . Lewis (2001):287.
81. . Dilimiz.com. 2011-10-06 දින මුල් පිටපත වෙතින් සංරක්ෂණය කරන ලදී. සම්ප්‍රවේශය 2011-11-03.
82. Because it is also used for the indefinite accusative, Lewis uses the term "absolute case" in preference to "nominative". Lewis (2001):28.
83. Lewis points out that "an indefinite izafet group can be turned into intelligible (though not necessarily normal) English by the use of a hyphen". Lewis (2001): 42.
84. The examples are taken from Lewis (2001): 41–47.
85. For other possible permutations of this vehicle, see Lewis (2001):46.
86. "It is most important to note that the third-person suffix is not repeated though theoretically one might have expected Ankara [Kız Lisesi]si." Lewis (2001): 45 footnote.
87. Note the similarity with the French phrase un m'as-tu-vu "a have-you-seen-me?", i.e., a vain and pretentious person.
88. The term substantival sentence is Lewis's. Lewis(2001:257).
89. Demir, Celal (2007). "Türkiye Türkçesi Gramerlerinde İsim Tamlaması Sorunu ve Bir Tasnif Denemesi" [The Problem of Adjective in Turkish: An Attempt of Classification] (PDF). Türk Dünyası İncelemeleri Dergisi [Journal of Turkish World Studies] (තුර්කි බසින්). 7 (1): 27–54. සම්ප්‍රවේශය 2013-03-29.
90. Yüksel Göknel:Turkish Grammar^[]
91. (PDF) (තුර්කි බසින්). 2013-03-13 දින මුල් පිටපත (PDF) වෙතින් සංරක්ෂණය කරන ලදී. සම්ප්‍රවේශය 2013-03-29.
92. "Dersimiz Edebiyat Online course" (තුර්කි බසින්). Dersimizedebiyat.com. සම්ප්‍රවේශය 2013-03-29.
93. The conventional translation of the film title , The Man Who Saved the World, uses the past tense. Semantically, his saving the world takes place though in the (narrative) present.
94. See Lewis (2001):163–165, 260–262 for an exhaustive treatment.
95. For the terms personal and relative participle see Lewis (1958):98 and Lewis (2001):163 respectively. Most of the examples are taken from Lewis (2001).
96. This more complex example from 's Kar () contains a nested structure: [which he knew [were approaching]]. 's more succinct and idiomatic translation is the days in prison he knew lay ahead. Note that Pamuk uses the spelling hapisane.
97. From the perspective of Turkish grammar yaklaştığını anladığı is exactly parallel to babasını gördüğüm ("whose father I saw"), and could therefore be paraphrased as "whose approaching he understood".
98. (තුර්කි බසින්). Tdkterim.gov.tr. 2013-03-28 දින මුල් පිටපත වෙතින් සංරක්ෂණය කරන ලදී. සම්ප්‍රවේශය 2013-03-29.
99. Goksel, Asli; Kerslake, Celia (2005). Turkish: A Comprehensive Grammar. Routledge. pp. 43–48. ISBN .
100. Zimmer & Orgun (1999:155)
101. (1977). "Atatürk ve Yazım". Türk Dili (තුර්කි බසින්). 35 (307).  1301-465X. සම්ප්‍රවේශය 2007-03-19.
102. Coulmas 1989, pp. 243–244
103. In modern Turkish spelling: elma ağaçtan ırak düşmez.
104. Celia Kerslake; Asli Goksel (11 June 2014). Turkish: An Essential Grammar. Routledge. p. 12. ISBN .
105. Lewis (2001):3–7. Note that in these cases the circumflex conveys information about the preceding consonant rather than the vowel over which it is written.
106. "Northern village of Kuşköy still communicates with amazing Turkish whistling language". The Daily Sabah. February 16, 2016.

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• Zimmer, Karl; Orgun, Orhan (1999). (PDF). Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: A guide to the use of the International Phonetic Alphabet. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 154–158. ISBN . 2018-07-25 දින මුල් පිටපත (PDF) වෙතින් සංරක්ෂණය කරන ලදී. සම්ප්‍රවේශය 2015-04-12.

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• Center for Studies on Turkey, (2003). (PDF). Turkish Industrialists' and Businessmen's Association. December 4, 2005 දින මුල් පිටපත (PDF) වෙතින් සංරක්ෂණය කරන ලදී. සම්ප්‍රවේශය 2007-01-06.
• "CIA Factbook:Iraq". 2013.
• (තුර්කි බසින්). . 2005. 2007-03-12 දින මුල් පිටපත වෙතින් සංරක්ෂණය කරන ලදී. සම්ප්‍රවේශය 2007-03-21.
• "Turkish Etymological Dictionary online" (තුර්කි බසින්). Sevan Nişanyan. 2006. සම්ප්‍රවේශය 2007-09-11.
• . International Institute, Center for World Languages. February 2007. 2007-10-11 දින මුල් පිටපත වෙතින් සංරක්ෂණය කරන ලදී. සම්ප්‍රවේශය 2007-04-26.
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• (තුර්කි බසින්). . 2012-07-28 දින මුල් පිටපත වෙතින් සංරක්ෂණය කරන ලදී. සම්ප්‍රවේශය 2013-01-13.
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• (තුර්කි බසින්). . 2005. March 1, 2007 දින මුල් පිටපත වෙතින් සංරක්ෂණය කරන ලදී. සම්ප්‍රවේශය 2007-03-21.
• (PDF) (තුර්කි බසින්). Turkish Studies: International Periodical For The Languages, Literature and History of Turkish or Turkic Volume 7/3. 2013-03-13 දින මුල් පිටපත (PDF) වෙතින් සංරක්ෂණය කරන ලදී. සම්ප්‍රවේශය 2013-01-15.

Further reading

• Eyüboğlu, İsmet Zeki (1991). Türk Dilinin Etimoloji Sözlüğü [Etymological Dictionary of the Turkish Language] (තුර්කි බසින්). Sosyal Yayınları, İstanbul. ISBN .
• Özel, Sevgi; Haldun Özen; Ali Püsküllüoğlu, eds. (1986). Atatürk'ün Türk Dil Kurumu ve Sonrası [Atatürk's Turkish Language Association and its Legacy] (තුර්කි බසින්). Bilgi Yayınevi, Ankara.  18836678.
• Püsküllüoğlu, Ali (2004). Arkadaş Türkçe Sözlük [Arkadaş Turkish Dictionary] (තුර්කි බසින්). Arkadaş Yayınevi, Ankara. ISBN .
• Rezvani, B. "Türkçe Mi: Türkçe’deki İrani (Farsca, Dimilce, Kurmançca) Orijinli kelimeler Sözlüğü.[Turkish title (roughly translated): Is this Turkish? An etymological dictionary of originally Iranic (Persian, Zazaki, and Kurmanji Kurdish) words]." (2006).

External links

• Turkish dictionaries at
• Turkish language at
• Swadesh list of Turkish basic vocabulary words (from Wiktionary's Swadesh-list appendix)
• Turkish Language: Resources – University of Michigan