බටහිර සංස්කෘතිය

බටහිර ලෝකය නමින් හැඳින්වෙන භූගෝලිය ප්‍රදේශය තුල පැතිරී පවතින නොයෙකුත් , සදාචාර පද්ධතීන්, , විශ්වාසයන්, , සහ තාක්ෂණයන් යනාදීය හැඳින්වීමට බටහිර සංස්කෘතිය, අපරදිග සංස්කෘතිය, බටහිර ශිෂ්ඨාචාරය, හෝ අපරදිග ශිෂ්ඨාචාරය යන යෙදුම් භාවිත කෙරේ. මානව විද්‍යාවේදී “බටහිර” යන්නෙන් අදහස් කෙරෙන්නේ පුරාතන ග්‍රීසිය සහ රෝමය ආශ්‍රයෙන් බිහිවී පසුව ලොවෙහි වෙනත් ප්‍රදේශ වලට පැතිරුන සංස්කෘතියයි. වඩා පුළුල් නිර්වචනයකට අනුව බටහිර සංස්කෘතියෙහි අරටුවට මූලික පදනම සපයන්නේ සහ ක්‍රිස්තියානි ආගමයි. බටහිර සංස්කෘතිය යනු ඉතා පුළුල් සංකල්පයක් වන අතර එය නිශ්චිත භූගෝලීය ප්‍රදේශයකට සීමා කළ නොහැක. එසේ වුවද, සාමාන්‍යයෙන් එයින් අදහස් වන්නේ යුරෝපානු මහාද්වීපය තුල පවතින නානාප්‍රකාර සංස්කෘතීන් සහ යුරෝපානු රටවල් සමග ඓතිහාසිකමය සබඳතා පැවති රටවල් වල සංස්කෘතීන් වේ.

කලාත්මක, දාර්ශනිකමය, සාහිත්‍යමය සහ තේමාවන් සහ සම්ප්‍රදායන් ගණනාවකින් බටහිර සංස්කෘතිය සංලක්ෂණය වේ. ක්‍රිස්තියානි ධර්මය, ප්‍රධාන වශයෙන් කතෝලික පල්ලිය සහ පසු කාලීනව ප්‍රොතෙස්තන්තවාදය, මෙන්ම යුදෙව් ආගමද බටහිර සංස්කෘතිය හැඩගැස්වීමට දායක විය. පුරාතන ග්‍රීසියේ සිට මධ්‍යතන යුගය සහ පුනරුදය දක්වාම බටහිර චින්තනයෙහි තිබූ ප්‍රධානම අංගයක් වූයේ යි. අනුභූතිවාදය යන සංකල්පය පසු කාලීනව විද්‍යාත්මක ක්‍රමයට, සහ මග පාදන ලදී.

ආශ්‍රිත

1. Hanson, Victor Davis (2007-12-18). Carnage and Culture: Landmark Battles in the Rise to Western Power (ඉංග්‍රීසි බසින්). Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. ISBN . the term "Western" — refer to the culture of classical antiquity that arose in Greece and Rome; survived the collapse of the Roman Empire; spread to western and northern Europe; then during the great periods of exploration and colonization of the fifteenth through nineteenth centuries expanded to the Americas, Australia and areas of Asia and Africa; and now exercises global political, economic, cultural, and military power far greater than the size of its territory or population might otherwise suggest.
2. • Freeman, Charles (September 2000). The Greek Achievement: The Foundation of the Western World (ඉංග්‍රීසි බසින්). Penguin Publishing Group. ISBN . The Greeks provided the chromosomes of Western civilization. One does not have to idealize the Greeks to sustain that point. Greek ways of exploring the cosmos, defining the problems of knowledge (and what is meant by knowledge itself), creating the language in which such problems are explored, representing the physical world and human society in the arts, defining the nature of value, describing the past, still underlie the Western cultural tradition
   • Cartledge, Paul (2002-10-10). The Greeks: A Portrait of Self and Others (ඉංග්‍රීසි බසින්). OUP Oxford. ISBN . Greekness was identified with freedom-spiritual and social as well as political-and slavery was equated with being barbarian, [...] 'democracy' was a Greek invention (celebrating its 2,500th anniversary in 1993/4) [...] an ancient culture, that of the Greeks — is both a foundation stone of our own (Western) civilization and at the same time in key respects a deeply alien phenomenon.
   • Pagden, Anthony (2008-03-13). Worlds at War: The 2,500 - Year Struggle Between East and West (ඉංග්‍රීසි බසින්). OUP Oxford. ISBN . Had the Persians overrun all of mainland Greece, had they then transformed the Greek city-states into satrapies of the Persian Empire, had Greek democracy been snuffed out, there would have been no Greek theater, no Greek science, no Plato, no Aristotle, no Sophocles, no Aeschylus. The incredible burst of creative energy that took place during the fifth and fourth centuries B.C.E. and that laid the foundation for all of later Western civilization would never have happened. [...] in the years between 490 and 479 B.C.E., the entire future of the Western world hung precariously in the balance
3. • Richard, Carl J. (2010-04-16). Why We're All Romans: The Roman Contribution to the Western World (ඉංග්‍රීසි බසින්). Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. ISBN . In 1,200 years the tiny village of Rome established a republic, conquered all of the Mediterranean basin and western Europe, lost its republic, and finally, surrendered its empire. In the process the Romans laid the foundation of Western civilization. [...] The pragmatic Romans brought Greek and Hebrew ideas down to earth, modified them, and transmitted them throughout western Europe. [...] Roman law remains the basis for the legal codes of most western European and Latin American countries — Even in English-speaking countries, where common law prevails, Roman law has exerted substantial influence
   • Sharon, Moshe (2004-01-01). Studies in Modern Religions, Religious Movements and the Båabåi-Bahåa'åi Faiths (ඉංග්‍රීසි බසින්). BRILL. ISBN . Side by side with Christianity, the classical Greco-Roman world forms the sound foundation of Western civilization. Greek philosophy is also the origin for the methods and contents of the philosophical thought and theological investigation in Islam and Judaism
   • Grant, Michael (1991). The Founders of the Western World : A History of Greece and Rome. New York : Scribner : Maxwell Macmillan International. ISBN  – via Internet Archive.
   • Perry, Marvin; Chase, Myrna; Jacob, James; Jacob, Margaret; Laue, Theodore H. Von (2012-01-01). Western Civilization: Since 1400 (ඉංග්‍රීසි බසින්). Cengage Learning. ISBN .
4. Spielvogel, Jackson J. (2006). Western Civilization (ඉංග්‍රීසි බසින්). Wadsworth. ISBN . people in these early civilizations viewed themselves as subjects of states or empires, not as members of Western civilization. With the rise of Christianity during the Late Roman Empire, however, peoples in Europe began to identify themselves as part of a civilization different from others, such as that of Islam, leading to a concept of a Western civilization different from other civilizations. In the fifteenth century, Renaissance intellectuals began to identify this civilization not only with Christianity but also with the intellectual and political achievements of the ancient Greeks and Romans. Important to the development of the idea of a distinct Western civilization were encounters with other peoples. Between 700 and 1500, encounters with the world of Islam helped define the West. But after 1500, as European ships began to move into other parts of the world, encounters with peoples in Asia, Africa, and the Americas not only had an impact on the civilizations found there but also affected how people in the West defined themselves. At the same time, as they set up colonies, Europeans began to transplant a sense of Western identity to other areas of the world, especially North America and parts of Latin America, that have come to be considered part of Western civilization
5. Spielvogel, Jackson J. (2016). Western Civilization: A Brief History, Volume I: To 1715 (Cengage Learning ed.). Cengage Learning. p. 156. ISBN .
6. Neill, Thomas Patrick (1957). Readings in the History of Western Civilization, Volume 2 (Newman Press ed.). p. 224.
7. ; Farrugia, Maria (2003). Catholicism: The Story of Catholic Christianity. Oxford University Press. p. v (preface). ISBN .
8. Karl Heussi, Kompendium der Kirchengeschichte, 11. Auflage (1956), Tübingen (Germany), pp. 317–319, 325–326
9. The Protestant Heritage සංරක්ෂණය කළ පිටපත 23 පෙබරවාරි 2018 at the Wayback Machine, Britannica
10. McNeill, William H. (2010). History of Western Civilization: A Handbook (University of Chicago Press ed.). University of Chicago Press. p. 204. ISBN .
11. Faltin, Lucia; Melanie J. Wright (2007). The Religious Roots of Contemporary European Identity (A&C Black ed.). A&C Black. p. 83. ISBN .
12. Noble, Thomas F. X. (1 January 2013). Western civilization : beyond boundaries (7th ed.). Boston, MA. p. 107. ISBN .  858610469.{{}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ()
13. Marvin Perry; Myrna Chase; James Jacob; Margaret Jacob; Jonathan W Daly (2015). Western Civilization: Ideas, Politics, and Society, Volume I: To 1789. Cengage Learning. p. 105. ISBN .
14. Hengel, Martin (2003). Judaism and Hellenism : studies in their encounter in Palestine during the early Hellenistic period. Eugene, OR: Wipf & Stock Publishers. ISBN .  52605048.
15. Porter, Stanley E. (2013). Early Christianity in its Hellenistic context. Volume 2, Christian origins and Hellenistic Judaism : social and literary contexts for the New Testament. Leiden: Brill. ISBN .  851653645.
16. Roman Catholicism සංරක්ෂණය කළ පිටපත 6 මැයි 2015 at the Wayback Machine, "Roman Catholicism, Christian church that has been the decisive spiritual force in the history of Western civilization". Encyclopædia Britannica
17. Caltron J.H Hayas, Christianity and Western Civilization (1953), Stanford University Press, p. 2: That certain distinctive features of our Western civilization—the civilization of western Europe and of America—have been shaped chiefly by Judaeo–Christianity, Catholic and Protestant.
18. Jose Orlandis, 1993, "A Short History of the Catholic Church", 2nd edn. (Michael Adams, Trans.), Dublin:Four Courts Press, ISBN , preface, see [1] සංරක්ෂණය කළ පිටපත 2 ජනවාරි 2023 at the Wayback Machine, accessed 8 December 2014. p. (preface)
19. and Antonio Canizares, 2012, "How the Catholic Church Built Western Civilization," Reprint edn., Washington, D.C.: Regnery History, ISBN , see accessed 8 December 2014. p. 1: "Western civilization owes far more to Catholic Church than most people—Catholic included—often realize. The Church in fact built Western civilization."
20. Marvin Perry (1 January 2012). Western Civilization: A Brief History, Volume I: To 1789. Cengage Learning. pp. 33–. ISBN .